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For many Christians, the celebration of the Easter Triduum begins tonight (Holy Thursday, 14 April 2022). Meanwhile, Jewish communities prepare to celebrate the Passover festival (sundown, 15 April 2022). May we all, Christians and Jews, be strengthened at this time of year through our respective journeys of remembrance and festivities of freedom and redemption! A reflection from the Exodus story follows, with the help of Jewish insights. Exodus 10-13 tells of dramatic events. Three more plagues exhibit the power of the Lord. The tug-of-war continues between Pharaoh and Moses as God’s agent. The Passover ritual is prescribed and the momentous event takes place: the Israelites are liberated from Egypt! Amidst all this breathtaking activity our chosen text for reflection is brief: just one verse: 12:42. “That was for the Lord a night of vigil to bring them out of the land of Egypt; that same night is the Lord’s, one of vigil for all the children of Israel throughout the ages” (Exodus 12:42). In his commentary, the 11th century Torah scholar Rashi says: “It is a night of keepings... For the Holy One, Blessed is He, was keeping it in mind and looking forward to it in order to fulfill His promise to take them out of the land of Egypt.” Ponder the detail (e.g., repetition, time of day, context) of the Torah verse, as well as Rashi’s comment. Does the sacred text speak to you? How? The verse is powerfully understated. It immediately follows a statement about the length of time (430 years) that the Israelites had spent in Egypt... until this night. Can’t we all point to a moment when our lives underwent irrevocable change. Think of ‘a night’ (literally or figuratively) when God’s liberating love entered your life, changing you forever. As we enter the Exodus story, can we sense the intimacy between God and the Hebrews as communicated by this one verse? On this night the Lord watches over his people, thus the people will remember this night which belongs to the Lord. Because it is precious to the Lord, it remains precious to his people. Continue to ponder this verse, sharing your insights and questions. God‘s people are safeguarded, and God’s special night is kept holy in return. This ancient text finds contemporary ritual expression in the Jewish seder meal held in the home at Passover. From generation to generation the seder commemorates the Exodus event and is central to the Jewish Passover festival. A Talmudic interpretation describes Passover as “a night ever under protection from malevolent beings.”[1] This text carries tragic irony when we recall that in Europe of the Middle Ages the commemoration of ‘this night’ of the Lord’s watch was a night when Jews were least protected by the surrounding Christian culture. Christian passion plays were known to stir up hatred towards the so-called ‘Christ-killers’ to the point of violence inflicted upon local Jews. The hysteria was fed by a bizarre accusation (the ‘blood libel’) that Jews were using the blood of Christian children in their Passover ritual. It is painful for Christians to hear this chapter of their history, yet it is all part of coming to terms with the past and embracing today’s new era of reconciliation between Christians and Jews. Faith & Liturgy So much of Christian liturgy is grounded in Jewish story and ritual. Many Christians gather on the night of Holy Thursday and read from the same passage we have explored above. On the night of the Easter vigil, readings from the Pentateuch and the Prophets are heard and pondered in parish churches, as the events of the Exodus are remembered and the dawn of Easter Sunday anticipated. 1. Pes. 109b, RH 11b quoted in JPS Torah Commentary. Bibliography: Larsson, Bound for Freedom (Mass., 1999); Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia, 1991); Scherman, Zlotowitz, eds., Rashi: Commentary on the Torah (New York: Mesorah, 1999). Scripture: JPS. © Teresa Pirola, 2013, 2022. lightoftorah.net

This week’s Torah reading comes from the Book of Leviticus where the theme of ritual purity draws the attention of Jewish commentators. Ancient ritual purity laws is not an easy topic for our twenty-first century mindset and can prove challenging for many a Christian reader. It is not uncommon to hear certain Old Testament passages dismissed as irrelevant, sexist, legalistic writings, supposedly rejected by Jesus and by our own ‘enlightened’ times. If this were the case, Leviticus would have little to say to us. Yet, as Christians we believe that these texts form an integral part of our Bible through which we encounter God's revealing word. We need to dig deeper . . . Let's listen to how Jewish tradition interprets its own sacred texts. Read Leviticus 12:1-8. Particularly unsettling to contemporary ears are the opening verses that declare a woman who has just given birth to be in a state of ritual impurity: “The Lord spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to the children of Israel, saying: If a woman conceives and bears a male child, she shall be ceremonially unclean seven days … (Leviticus 12:1-2) When the days of her purification are completed, whether for a son or for a daughter, she shall bring to the priest at the entrance of the tent of meeting a lamb in its first year for a burnt offering, and a pigeon or turtledove for a sin offering.” (Leviticus 12:6) What is our starting point in unpacking this passage? We begin with the knowledge that Judaism holds procreation to be a God-given blessing and duty. Why, then, should a mother, having just given birth, be declared “unclean”? Jewish scholars take up this line of questioning. They note that, at the conclusion of her purification period, the Torah calls for both a "burnt offering" and a "sin offering." In particular, the insistence on a "sin offering" is deemed puzzling. The burnt offering is less problematic. The fifteenth-century Torah commentator, Abravanel, [1] suggests that this was a way for the mother to “cleave to her maker, who had performed wondrous things for her, in delivering her from the pain and danger of childbirth.” In other words, this sacrificial action is one of praise and thanksgiving. But why the need for a sin offering when the mother has committed no sin? In the midrash we find an explanation by way of a certain detail approached through two differing lenses. On the one hand, Rabbi Levi marvels at the wonders of pregnancy and birth: “Human beings entrust to [the Creator] a drop of fluid in privacy, and the Holy One . . . openly returns to them completed and perfected human individuals. Is this not a matter for praise?” [2] On the other hand, in another midrashic source we read: : “From whence do you come? From a fetid drop…” [3] Whereas the first view from Rabbi Levi focuses on the holy wonder of the earthy realities of procreation, the other midrashic source dwells on the insignificance of human beings compared to the majesty of the Creator. The latter has echoes in the Book of Isaiah. There the prophet witnesses a heavenly vision with angelic voices proclaiming “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts (Isa. 6:3).” And how does the prophet respond? “Woe is me! I am lost, for I am a man of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5).” Perhaps, then, this is the sense in which the Torah speaks of the impurity and sin offering of a woman after childbirth: she is profoundly in touch with both the greatness of the Creator and the smallness and fragility of the newly birthed human being, as well as her own vulnerability. Our reflections drawn from traditional Jewish commentary suggest that the sin offering closing the mother’s purification period need not be interpreted as atonement for sin, but rather as an expression of the ‘gap’ in perfection between human beings and their Creator. In this way, our Leviticus reading leads us to questions and reflections that speak to us today; for example: In my own life, in what ways am I aware of God’s greatness, and my smallness? Recall, too, how even the greatest of Christian saints were acutely aware of their own insignificance, inadequacies and sins. What is the difference between awareness of one’s human fragility and poor self-esteem? What unique insights into life and faith do mothers bring to faith communities, attentive to the experience of giving birth? Perspectives of contemporary Jewish women As Christian readers we can also be aware that, just as Christian Bible studies today are enriched by the insights of women scholars and educators, so too has a similar development emerged within Judaism. Here we find diverse female opinions that both affirm and critique the tradition for its handling of biblical texts such as Leviticus 12. Some explore the problems in traditional interpretation arising from time-conditioned societal norms. Others draw from the tradition alternative interpretations that are affirming, empowering and protective of women, girls and female experience. [Note: the midrashic insights above are discussed in the teaching of Nehama Leibowitz (1905-1997), an Orthodox Jewish woman widely regarded as one the leading teachers of Torah in twentieth-century Israel.] While further discussion is not possible in this brief article, an excellent starting point for those interested is The Torah: A Women’s Commentary, edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss (New York: URJ Press, 2008). A connection with Luke’s Gospel Finally, note the reference to pigeon and turtledove as part of the ritual offerings in Leviticus 12:6. You may be interested to compare and contrast Luke 2:21-24 where a sacrifice of “a pair of turtledoves or two young pigeons” is mentioned in relation to Mary and Joseph “when the time came for their purification according to the law of Moses”. As Christians reading the story of Jesus’ birth and infancy, we are reminded that Jesus grew up in a Jewish family and community immersed in ancestral rituals and customs as practised in their day. ***** 1. Cited by Leibowitz, 177. 2. Vayikra Rabbah, Tazria XIV, 2-3. 3. Konteres Aharon in Midrash Yelamdenu; see Leibowitz, 179. Bibliography: Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus (New York, 1983); Leibowitz, New Studies in Vayikra, (New York, 1996); Eskenazi & Weiss (eds.), The Torah: A Women’s Commentary (New York, 2008). Levine and Brettler (eds.); The Jewish Annotated New Testament (Oxford University Press, 2017). Scripture: NRSV. © Teresa Pirola, 2013, 2021. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry arising from the Catholic community, encouraging Christian reflection on Torah with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Tazria (Lev. 12:1 - 13:59), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom!

Join us in an imaginative, insightful approach to an intriguing and disturbing biblical story, with the help of traditional Jewish interpreters of Torah . . . As chapter 9 of Leviticus opens, the narrative takes up the eighth and final day of the consecration of the Tabernacle. This is the day that Aaron begins to officiate as high priest. He and his sons take up their priestly duties in what begins as a solemn and exhilarating occasion. But something appears to go terribly wrong, ending in the deaths of two of Aaron’s sons. Read the story aloud, slowly, and preferably with a friend. Then let’s explore the sacred text with the Jewish sages. Now Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu each took his fire pan, put fire in it, and laid incense on it; and they offered before the LORD alien fire, which had not been enjoined upon them. And fire came forth from the LORD and consumed them; thus they died at the instance of the LORD. Then Moses said to Aaron, “This is what the LORD meant by saying: “Through those near to Me I show Myself holy, and gain glory before all the people.” And Aaron was silent. (Lev. 10:1-3) What happened to warrant the deaths of these two newly-ordained Israelite priests? Is it some kind of divine accident? Or did they get what they deserved? And if the two did commit a wrong, did the punishment fit the crime? If you feel uneasy about this story, know that your concerns are shared by the Jewish sages who have reflected on this text over many centuries. [1] It is good to know that our questions, concerns and, at times, strong human reactions to Scripture are all part of a healthy dialogue with the word of God. The Scriptures draw us into a robust personal engagement with God's word (rather than a blind, unthinking obedience). Alarmed by the fate of two respected Israelites (who were among the leaders to accompany Moses when he ascended Mt Sinai—see Exodus 24:1,9-11), and convinced that God is never unjust, the sages wrestle with the text and seek to explain it in various ways. Some propose that Nadab and Abihu were in fact guilty of sin: drunkenness (see Lev. 10:8-9), arrogance, irreverence. Too proud to ask the advice of the ‘old man’ Moses or even their father the high priest, they brought disaster upon themselves. Some say that similar transgressions had occurred when they were up on Mt Sinai with Moses. There they had infringed the boundaries set by God, but God had given them a reprieve. Others approach the problem very differently. They defend the virtue of Aaron’s sons. They note that each time their deaths are mentioned in Scripture it is in relation to “alien fire.” Thus their sin was nothing more than a religious ritual performed incorrectly, with pure motives, but with excessive enthusiasm. According to this view the severity of the punishment reflects the heights of the spiritual status of Aaron’s sons! God’s awesome display of power is a response to Nadab and Abihu at a level that most people do not attain. [Think of gifted students of whom more is expected than the average student.] Does this help to make sense of the Lord’s words (quoted by Moses in 10:3): “Through those near to Me I show Myself holy...” Then again, perhaps what we see in Nadab and Abihu is a superficial attempt to imitate the greatness of their father and uncle whom they saw negotiating the Lord’s fiery presence on Mt Sinai and here at the consecration of the Tabernacle. [2] The ceremony and celestial fireworks are all very exciting. Yet what Nadab and Abihu fail to appreciate is that the greatness of Moses and Aaron is hard won—authentic humility born in the crucible of adversity. Contrast this with the action of Nadab and Abihu who are in pursuit of a ‘photo-op’! The fires that were a blessing now become fires of catastrophe. Aaron’s ‘silence’ (10:3) is the pain of a parent, looking on sadly as his children make poor choices which contradict parental example. With reference to the text, ponder and discuss these three different interpretations. Which do you favour? Why? What perennial issues does each raise? How do you interpret this text, and (in particular) Aaron’s silence? Bring your own creative insights to this Torah discussion. Share and debate them with your Torah partner, in havrutah. Bibliography: Freedman & Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus (New York: Soncino, 1983); Munk, The Call of the Torah (New York: Mesorah, 1992); Plaut, The Torah: A Modern Commentary (New York, 2006) Scripture: NJPS 1. The midrashic opinions that follow are discussed by Plaut and Munk with particular reference to Leviticus Rabbah and Sifra. 2. I am grateful to Rabbi Dr Pesach Schindler for bringing this interpretation to the attention of our readers. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net. Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on the Hebrew Scriptures with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Shemini (Leviticus 9:1 - 11:47), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

Once again, we explore a passage of the Hebrew Scriptures that we might not ordinarily dwell upon as Christians. As we shall see, even just a few verses can bring forth surprising, wise and practical insights, when we stop long enough with the word of God to listen, ponder, discuss, debate and enjoy. This week’s reflection on Leviticus focuses on the priestly instructions concerning the ritual handling of one of the ancient sacrifices: ‘the sacrifice of thanksgiving.’ In ancient Jewish society, thanksgiving offerings expressed gratitude for deliverance from peril or misfortune. Read the ritual instructions for this sacrifice in 7:11-15. What details do you observe? “And the flesh of your thanksgiving sacrifice of well-being shall be eaten on the day it is offered; you shall not leave any of it until morning” (Leviticus 7:15). Perhaps you noticed that, in contrast to other sacrifices, a shorter timeframe is stipulated for eating the thanksgiving sacrifice. Did you wonder why? Ponder this. Test your ideas with a friend. Then let’s hear from some of the Jewish sages through the centuries.[1] Why is the thanksgiving sacrifice to be eaten sooner than the other sacrifices? For Maimonides (12th century), respect for the sacredness of the offerings means that they must be in the best possible condition. Delaying the feast gives the meat a chance to spoil. Gersonides (14th c. French scholar) expresses himself in direct, gastronomic terms: the meat is tastier before daybreak! The Sefer haHinukh (a famous medieval Jewish education text) views the instruction as an invitation to spiritual growth: “there is in this an allusion to our trust in God; a man should not begrudge himself his food and store it for the morrow.” This view resonates with rabbinic opinion in the Talmud: “He who has bread in his basket, and says: ‘what will I eat tomorrow?’ has little faith in God” (Sot. 48b). Recalled here is the miracle of ‘bread from heaven,’ manna in the desert, which the Israelites gathered “enough for that day” (Exodus 16:4). Abravanel (15th c. Spanish-Jewish Torah commentator), introduces a social dimension: “Seeing that he has only one day and one night for consuming his sacrifice, the owner invites his relatives and friends to share his meal and joy. On being asked what motivated this feast, the host will recount the Divine wonders.” Thus, the purpose of having a limited time for eating is to publicise the miracle. The HaEmek Davar (a 19th century Torah commentary) agrees: “This is designed to increase the number of participants in the feast on the day of the offering so that many people will learn of the miracle...” Note that what began as an apparently obscure cultic text (to 21st century sensibilities) becomes enlivened with meaning by the creative, prayerful energies of the traditional Jewish interpreters. In what way do your own creative, prayerful energies engage with the sacred text? How would you enter into this conversation with the sages? Further reflection Describe a time when an invitation to a community meal was a memorable occasion of thanksgiving to God. What was the ‘miracle’ for which you gave thanks? Enriched by our Torah discussion, listen afresh to the prayers and rituals of your Eucharistic celebration this Sunday. 1. Texts cited by Leibowitz, 81-82. Bibliography: Leibowitz, New Studies in Vayikra (New York, 1993); Strassfeld, The Jewish Holidays (New York, 1985, 2001). Scripture: NRSV. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net. Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on the Hebrew Scriptures with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Tzav (Leviticus 6:8 - 8:36), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

Many Christians find it somewhat intimidating to read those parts of the Hebrew Scriptures that are filled with repetitive ritual detail. The temptation is to flee to the familiar sounds and images of the Gospel stories! Yet if we give up too easily we will never discover the scriptural foundations upon which the New Testament depends. For a biblically rich life, we need to step out of our comfort zone and work on our interpretative muscles. In Jewish tradition (from where came these sacred texts) we find talented coaches to assist. Generations of sages have much to teach us about the importance of patient, attentive, inquisitive and imaginative reading of Torah (God’s word). Let’s explore, for example, the final chapters of the Book of Exodus: 38:21 - 40:38. It is now one year after the Israelites came out of Egypt, and the Israelites are completing an inventory of the materials which have gone into making the components required for the Tabernacle (the portable shrine which represents the presence of the Lord who dwells among them). When the Tabernacle is erected, it will be filled with the divine presence. Read these chapters at a leisurely pace. It takes about 13 minutes. Set aside time for this. Read aloud. Resist the urge to skim the text. Sink yourself into God’s word, attentive to its rhythms and repetitions, so essential to oral traditions. How do the intricate descriptions of material items play with your thought patterns? Do you notice the colours of those yarns, the name of each precious stone...? Does any detail in particular catch your attention? If so, why? In the detail can you taste the immense importance and effort of building the Tabernacle? Does it remind you of a great work, involving countless details, in your own life? "As the Lord had commanded Moses.” This phrase, like a drumbeat, punctuates the text 18 times. What is the effect of this repetition? At no place are we allowed to forget that it is the Lord’s desire and design that underlies all this complex human activity. The drumbeat keeps us focused on what is essential. It is a beat that we need to hear in our twenty-first century lives. Our world is often filled with activity; perhaps activity of great importance. Yet to what avail are our efforts if we become lost in the detail, losing sight of fidelity to the Lord’s desires and commands? The Bible’s drumbeat anchors the rhythms of our daily work. What else do you notice in the text? While the Israelites (i.e., all the people) bring the completed components to Moses, he (Moses) puts them all together. Puzzled? Why would this collective effort suddenly become a one-person task? According to the midrash, none of the Israelites knew how to assemble the pieces. “So what did they do? Each took their finished piece of work to Moses, saying: ‘here are the boards, here are the bolts’; and as soon as Moses beheld them, the Holy Spirit settled upon him and he set the Tabernacle up. You must not say that it was Moses who set it up, for miracles were performed with it and it rose of its own accord.” [Exodus Rabbah 52, 4] See how the midrash invites us to ponder a human effort from a spiritual perspective. Even a construction site is permeated by divine presence. A structural task is worthy of the language of miracles. We are reminded that the Lord is deeply involved with his people, with their work of service in creating the Tabernacle, and with Moses, a faithful servant who is especially close to the Lord. Perhaps the Torah is starting to speak to your own life. Perhaps you are recalling where you saw God’s hand at work, or pondering your need to stay focused on the Lord amidst activity. Allow this ancient text to engage your thoughts, questions, conversation. • Bibliography: Etz Hayim (New York: JPS, 2001); Fox, The Five Books of Moses (New York, 1995); Freedman & Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus (New York, 1983). Scripture: JPS. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of the Light of Torah website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on the Hebrew Scriptures with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Pekudei (Exodus 38:21 - 40:38), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

This week we explore an episode of 'straight talk' between God and Moses in chapter 32 of the Book of Exodus. The Golden Calf episode is a critical point in the God-Israel relationship. While Moses is up the mountain, his absence in the camp below (an absence perhaps far too long for a people desperate for firm leadership) creates a void that is unhappily filled. The people resort to building a golden calf and appear to succumb to idol worship. No wonder God is upset, angry. The conversation between God and Moses by now is fraught with tension. Read the account of the Israelites’ actions in Exodus 32:1-6, then read the dialogue that ensues between God and Moses in 32:7-14. Note the repetition, the interesting inclusions and puzzling aspects about the text. What does a close reading reveal about the developing relationship between the characters? Where does your empathy lie? What insights emerge? The Lord spoke to Moses, “Go down at once! your people, whom you brought up out of the land of Egypt, have acted perversely” (Exodus 32:7). Do you hear in God’s words the extent of the tragedy at hand? Your people? Wait a minute, isn’t this God’s own people whom God brought out of Egypt? Can the Almighty really be wiping his hands of the Israelites? Surely not! And yet verse 9 only feeds our concern: “I have seen this people, how stiff-necked they are.” Where we might have expected God to say ‘my’ people instead we find ‘this’ people. What we are hearing is not just disappointment, it is estrangement! Do you agree? What thoughts emerged from your own discussion? Support your comments with close reference to the text. Perhaps you also noted the strong response of Moses. If he takes a punch, he certainly gives back a right hook! “Oh Lord, why does your wrath burn hot against your people, who you brought out of the land of Egypt” (32:11). Moses has the gall to remind God of God’s own doings: This is your people, Lord, to whose ancestors you swore a divine promise! (see vv. 12-13). Can you sense the electricity of the moment. Like a married couple experiencing a major conflict, God and Israel (with Moses as mediator) find themselves at crossroads: will they find their way to a deeper union, or will this incident tear them apart? In the tradition we find some sages criticizing Moses’ response. How dare he speak with such irreverence to Almighty God! Yet, within that same tradition, a deep sensitivity to the sacred text allows for a defense of Moses. “Now, let me alone,” says God (v.10) immediately before his stated intention to destroy his people. Say the Jewish sages, this unusual and seemingly unnecessary phrase (‘let me be’, ‘leave me’) offers a vital clue that God is stalling for time and in fact wants Moses to intervene! Says Rashi,[1] echoing midrashic interpretations: “Moses had not even begun to pray for them, yet God said: ‘Leave Me alone’? But here He gave Moses an opening and informed him that the matter depended on him.” In other words, amidst divine heartbreak God creates a space for more to happen, and Moses is astute and responsive enough to take the hint. He throws himself into active prayer. Indeed, the Jewish sages view Moses as a master of prayer, an intimate of God, boldly confident in the divine-human relationship and prepared to ‘give all’ according to the urgency of the situation. Reflection Am I trusting enough to approach the Lord with directness, confidence, boldness, in my prayer life? What do I learn from the example of Moses in this biblical story, and from the tradition that interprets it?• 1. Rashi, 11th C. Torah commentator, cited by Leibowitz, 565. Bibliography: Freedman & Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus (New York: Soncino, 1983); Leibowitz, New Studies in Shemot (New York, 1996). Scripture: NRSV. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of the Light of Torah website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on the Hebrew Scriptures with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Ki Tisa (Exodus 30:11 - 34:35), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

Have you have ever found your eyes glaze over at a seemingly tedious passage of ritual instruction in the Old Testament? This week's Torah reflection invites you to revisit a small portion of the text with fresh eyes, through the lens of Jewish interpreters. In the Book of Exodus, as the Tabernacle is constructed and furnished, we find a long list of ritual instructions: for the lighting of Temple lamps (Ch. 27), the making of priestly vestments (Ch. 28), the ordination of priests (Ch. 29) and construction of the incense altar (Ch. 30). As we enter this week's Torah journey, read as much as you can of these chapters, then let’s focus upon the first two verses: 27:20-21. 'You shall further command the Israelites to bring you clear oil of beaten olives for the light, so that a lamp may be set up to burn regularly. In the tent of meeting, outside the curtain that is before the covenant, Aaron and his sons shall tend it from evening to morning before the Lord. It shall be a perpetual ordinance to be observed throughout their generations by the Israelites' (Exodus 27:20-21). Read these verses slowly, prayerfully and try to imagine the scene and its significance. Do we have the picture? Just outside the innermost section of the shrine containing the stone tablets inscribed with the Decalogue (‘ten commandments’), stands a lamp which is lit by the priests every evening. It is lit using high quality fuel (‘clear oil of beaten olives’) and it burns throughout the night until morning. This ritual lighting takes on a significance that will be transmitted through generations. Much later in Jewish history, synagogues came to feature an ever-burning lamp (ner tamid: an 'everlasting light', 'eternal flame') suspended in front of the ark which contains the sacred Torah scrolls. (In a similar manner, Catholic churches have a sanctuary lamp near the tabernacle.) Some commentators express surprise at the placing of this verse in Exodus 27. Why here? Why not later in the narrative when the priests have been ordained, vested and the sanctuary is ready to be used for worship. Wouldn’t that be the time to think about lighting the lamp? How would you enter this conversation? Test your own explanation with that of a friend, in havrutah-style discussion, before reading on. Some commentators express surprise at the placing of this verse. Why here? Would it help to recall that one of the most compelling images in the Hebrew scriptures and Jewish tradition is that which describes the Torah as spiritual illumination? “But those who study the Torah give forth light wherever they may be. It is like one standing in the dark with a lamp in his hand, as it says, ‘Thy Word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path’ (Ps. 94, 105)” [Numbers Rabbah 11, 6]. Perhaps, say Jewish interpreters, we can see a deeper reason as to why the lamp lighting instructions take priority, even before the ordination of priests. More than a practical ritual detail, it signifies the whole purpose for the tabernacle: that by a life faithful to the Lord’s teachings, the people of Israel may dwell always in the Lord’s light. Thus says the Lord, according to a midrashic text: “If My light will be in your hand, your light will be in My hand” (Exodus Rabbah 36, 3]. Reflect on the quotations above. In your life, is your engagement with Scripture a priority? Think about how God's word lights your way, and draws you more deeply into your community of faith. How do these Jewish insights into Torah enrich your own biblical understanding as a Christian? Bibliography: Eskenazi and Weiss, eds., The Torah: A Women’s Commentary (New York, 2008); Schorsch, Canon Without Closure (New York, 2007). Scripture: NRSV. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of the Light of Torah website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on the Hebrew Scriptures with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Tetzaveh (Exodus 27:20 - 30:10), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

“And let them make Me a sanctuary that I may dwell among them” (Exodus 25:8). Having received the Torah at Mt Sinai, in Exodus 25 the Israelites receive from God the task of building the Tabernacle: a portable tent-like shrine which will signify the Lord’s presence among his people. After listing the construction materials, the text describes each of the furnishings to be made. At the innermost section of the Tabernacle will rest the ark—the box or chest containing the stone tablets engraved with the Decalogue (‘Ten Commandments’). Thus the ark is linked in a special way with God’s covenant with Israel through the gift of Torah. This text describes each of the furnishings: “Exactly as I show you—the pattern of the Tabernacle and the pattern of all its furnishings—so shall you make it” (25:9). “They shall make an ark...” (25:10). “You shall make a cover of pure gold” (25:17). “You shall make a table...” (25:23). “You shall make a lampstand” (25:31). “You shall then make cloths...” (26:7). “You shall make the planks...” (26:15). “You shall make bars...” (26:26). “You shall make the altar...” (27:1). As the construction details unfold, the recurring pattern “You shall make...” is clear. But there is one departure from the pattern which caught the attention of the Rabbis. Did you spot it? “They shall make an ark” (25:10). [1] The exception occurs in relation to the ark itself. Why the contrast: ‘they’ instead of ‘you’? Read the text and ponder this question, preferably with a friend (your havrutah partner) before reading on. The sages puzzle over this subtle difference in the sacred text: Why ‘they’ instead of ‘you’? Observing that the ark is the first furnishing mentioned, in the Midrash (storytelling traditions of Judaism) we find this creative interpretative leap: Just as the Torah preceded everything [at the Creation], so did God give precedence to the Ark over all other vessels in the construction of the Tabernacle; and just as light preceded all other works of the Creation...so also did the work in connection with the Torah, which is called ‘light’—as it is written: ‘For the commandment is a lamp and the Torah a light’ (Prov. 6:23)—take precedence. [2] But we have not yet answered our question: why ‘they’ instead of ‘you’? Again, hear the Midrash: The Holy One…wished to stress that the command [to build the Tabernacle] applied to each and every Israelite alike. No one should have the excuse to say to one’s fellow Israelite: I contributed more to the ark. Therefore I study [Torah] more and have a greater stake in it than you! .... Whoever is part of the congregation of Jacob...they are just as important as the High Priest. [3] Later commentary takes this further, pointing out that the implementation of the entirety of God’s teachings (Torah) requires collaborative effort. “No single individual can perform all the precepts... But, taken as a whole, the Israelite people can keep the entire gamut of Jewish observances. For this reason the Torah states: ‘they shall make the ark.’" [4] Harnessing all related insights, Jewish interpreters answer the question thus: By using the pronoun ‘they’ the Torah singles out the ark as having a special role, one enlisting all Israel in its making, accentuating the essential link between Torah, peoplehood and the indispensable gift and role of each person. For Catholics, the renewal of church life in our time has meant viewing the church not as the sole domain of clergy but a calling to each member of the community to offer his/her unique gift as a member of the one body of Christ. We often ground such discussions in New Testament texts like 1 Corinthians 12. Yet, as we see above with the help of Jewish interpreters, there are further ancient biblical depths testifying to the communal vocation of God’s people and the unique role of each member of the community. In fact, the teaching of the Gospels and Epistles depends upon this more ancient scriptural wisdom as its foundation. Which is why the Hebrew Scriptures remain central to our Christian faith experience today. To close with a quote from the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "The Old Testament is an indispensable part of Sacred Scripture. Its books are divinely inspired and retain a permanent value [cf. DV,14], for the Old Covenant has never been revoked." (n.121) Notes: 1. Most English translations read ‘they.’ NAB: ‘you.’ 2. See Exodus Rabbah 3. Midrash Tanhuma 4. Or Ha-Hayyim: a mystical commentary published 1742. Bibliography: Freedman & Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus (New York: Soncino, 1983); Leibowitz, New Studies in Shemot (New York, 1996); Montefiore & Loewe, A Rabbinic Anthology (New York, 1974); Catechism of the Catholic Church, accessed at the Vatican website. Scripture: NJPS. © Teresa Pirola, 2012. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of the Light of Torah website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on Torah with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Terumah (Exodus 25:1 - 27:19), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

This week, we explore a brief excerpt from an ancient legal text through the eyes of Jewish interpreters. It is from Exodus 22. Right after the Ten Commandments are uttered on Mt Sinai, a further code of conduct is given in the form of a list of judicial rulings. The rule within our focus deals with lending money to a person in need. “If you lend money to my people, to the poor among you, you shall not deal with them as a creditor...” (Exodus 22:25, NRSV) See, too, the translation of Everett Fox: “If you lend money to my people, to the afflicted one (who lives) beside you...” In Jewish tradition we find the sages puzzling over the curious wording of this verse. They wonder why not use a simpler, direct phrase: If you lend money to the poor...? Why the addition of ‘my people’ and ‘among you/beside you’? They detect in this wording three parallel objects: (i) my people; i.e. the people of Israel; (ii) the poor person, and (iii) the person who is ‘among’ you, near to you. From this analysis a great moral discussion is opened up: the problem of how to prioritise the giving of charity. When my finite resources can never reach everyone in need, how do I choose where to focus those resources? When I am confronted by suffering both near and far, among those in my intimate circle as well as those in the global human family, do relational factors affect my choices? Share something of your experience of this dilemma and your insights based on this Torah verse. In this single Torah verse, a moral discussion is opened up: how to prioritise the giving of charity, with limited resources. The sages are in no doubt that the Torah teaches the obligation of charity for the non-Jew, the stranger, the orphan. Yet they also interpret the Law as saying that the more intimate connections come first. As the Midrash puts it: The poor man in the market and the one in your street—your street comes first. A poor kinsman and a poor fellow-townsman, your kinsman comes first. ‘The poor man with you’—that poor who is with you and of you.1 According to the sages the vision held out by the Torah is not an impersonal mass distribution of charity, but an outreach based on an ever-widening of the familial circle. Thus the world is ultimately healed of poverty and suffering not by material aid alone but by ripples of intimacy emanating from our hearts and homes. We start with ‘our own children’ and from there reach out to include ‘other children’ as our own. This kind of loving will eventually embrace the whole human family, ensuring that we treat each person as a brother or sister, as one ‘who is with you/beside you’ and not simply the object of charity. A single Torah verse contains a great storehouse of ethical insight. Continue to discuss the moral principle and dilemma raised by this text. 1. Tanhuma Yashan, Mishpatim Bibliography: Herczeg, ed., Rashi: Commentary on the Torah (New York, 1999); Leibowitz, New Studies in Shemot (New York, 1996). © Teresa Pirola, 2012. Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on Torah with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Mishpatim (Exodus 21:1 - 24:18), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

Now Mount Sinai was all in smoke, for the LORD had come down upon it in fire...and the whole mountain trembled violently. The blare of the horn grew louder and louder. As Moses spoke, God answered him in thunder. (Exodus 19:18-19) Moses’ reception of the Decalogue (‘Ten Commandments’) on Mt Sinai, in the sight and hearing of the people gathered, is a dramatic biblical scene. The Book of Exodus describes it as theophany. There, in the presence of the whole community, God reveals the Torah, the divine teaching that welds the God-Israel relationship into an everlasting covenant. God, who is beyond all imagining, draws his people to the Divine Presence in a new way. Reading Exodus 19, one can’t help but notice the amount of preparation involved in the lead-up to the Decalogue: the public gathering, sights and sounds, sense of awe, the solemnity of Moses’ approach... Even before the Lord actually 'speaks' the Ten Commandments, what is the text trying to tell us about this moment? As the Jewish sages ponder this event they note that the text speaks of fire, smoke and thunder before and after the Decalogue, but there is no mention of them during the Decalogue itself. Says the creative storytelling of the Midrash: when God speaks, the earth falls silent: When God gave the Torah, no bird twittered, no fowl flew, no ox lowed, the Seraphim did not say ‘Holy Holy,’ the sea did not roar... The whole world was hushed into breathless silence and the Voice went forth. [1] Amidst the celestial drama the sages detect an exquisite thread of loving intimacy as God draws close to God’s people in an unprecedented way. It’s not just ‘what’ is said in the Ten Commandments, it is ‘how’. Even silence can be interpreted. According to Rashi, [2] when the text says that ‘Moses led the people out of the camp toward God’ (19:17), it suggests the meeting of lovers. As Israel goes out toward God, God goes forth to meet Israel like a bridegroom going out to greet his beloved. Likewise, the Talmud connects the Sinai revelation with the day of the Sabbath since, in the Jewish understanding, this is the day of intimate union—for wives and husbands, and for human beings and their Creator. As Israel goes out toward God, God goes forth to meet Israel like a bridegroom going out to greet his beloved. So convinced were the sages of the radical depths of the relationship forged between God and Israel through the gift of Torah, that in the interpretative storytelling of the Midrash we find the angels appalled at the idea! When Moses ascended to heaven, the angels complained... ‘What is a mere mortal doing here in our midst?’ God replied, ‘He has come to receive the Torah.’ The angels replied... ‘It is fitting that you give Torah to us in heaven. Why? Because we are holy and pure and it is pure and holy... far better that it remain with us.’ [3] Abraham Heschel [4] observes that in Jewish sacred writings Torah’s heavenly essence is personified: Torah is God’s darling daughter whose splendour never wanes, even after she departs from the divine domain to be among mortals. While not to be equated with the Christian doctrine of Incarnation, Christians will note a certain resonance here with their own belief in the divine Son. Heschel himself remarks on this 'as a striking example of similarity-with-difference between Judaism and Christianity.'[5] There is much to ponder in this Torah text, interpreted by Jewish tradition, to enrich our view of the Ten Commandments and to probe our Christian understanding of Jesus as the living Word, God’s living Torah. 1. Exodus Rabbah 29:9 2. Rashi: 11th century Torah scholar, France. 3. Midrash on Psalms 8:2 4. Heschel, 20th century Jewish theologian. 5. Heschel, Heavenly Torah, 323. Bibliography: Freedman and Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus (London/New York, 1983); Herczeg, ed., Rashi: Commentary on the Torah (New York, 1999); Heschel, Heavenly Torah (New York, 1996); Munk, The Call of the Torah (New York, 1994); Joseph Ratzinger, Jesus of Nazareth, Part Two, Holy Week (San Francisco, 2011), 169; Scripture: JPS. © Teresa Pirola, 2012. Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of website. Download the PDF version. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on Torah with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat Yitro (Exodus 18:1 - 20:23), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

In Exodus 14:15-16 the Lord speaks to Moses in the midst of a terrifying scene: Having escaped from Egypt, the Hebrew refugees find themselves trapped on the shore of the Red Sea: an expanse of water on one side and, on the other, Egyptian chariots in pursuit with murderous intent. In their terror the people cry out to the Lord, and even accuse Moses of leading them to their deaths (v.11). Now, in verses 15-16, God intervenes... Then the Lord said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to me? Tell the Israelites to go forward. But you lift up your rod, and hold out your arm over the sea and split it, so that the Israelites may march into the sea on dry ground.” (Exodus14:15-16) The sages of Israel, so attuned to the subtleties of the biblical text, noticed something odd about these two verses. Before reading on, see if you can spot it for yourself... Wouldn’t you expect God to command Moses to split the sea before telling the Israelites to go forward into it? Yet, the text has the order of the two steps reversed. What can be made of this? According to one creative interpretation: some of the Israelites lacked faith at the edge of the sea. Yet God asks that they show their faith by marching into the sea even before the waters have parted. Some commentators suggest a back-and-forth discussion among the tribes of Israelites, which we might paraphrase like this: “I’m not going first into the sea; you go.” “No way, I’m not going, you go first!” By contrast, another creative version has the tribes competing for the privilege of being the first to take the plunge, which we might paraphrase as: “I’ll go first.” “No, I want to be first!” How do you imagine the scene? Can you relate it to a moment in your own life when you were called to ‘take the plunge’ in an unknown and potentially perilous situation? How did you feel, react, behave? Did you ‘go first’? Can you think of a time when you were called to ‘take the plunge’ in an unknown and potentially perilous situation? Another midrash (interpretative story) takes an even stronger view, saying that the people were doubly rebellious at the sea. Why double? Psalm 106:7 contains a repetition [evident in the Hebrew text]: But [they] rebelled at the sea, at the Sea of Reeds. If the first moment of rebellion was the hesitation to go forward into the water, what was the second? The second, say some commentators, was to complain about the mud as they were walking through the parted waters! This interpretation relies on the use of the Hebrew word for mud (homer) found in Habakkuk (3:15). The Jewish interpreters of old knew their Scriptures intimately and manoeuvred through the texts freely, creatively, insightfully and prayerfully. In this way they came to conclude: miracles in themselves don’t bring people to faith. (It would appear that Jesus himself shared this view, reluctant to be labelled as a wonder-worker.) Like the Israelites’ petty grumblings amidst the miracle of the Red Sea, so can we be blind to the divine presence in our lives, held back by our fears or distracted by the ‘mud on our shoes.’ The attitude of ‘counting blessings,’ making ‘gratitude lists’ and practicing affirmation as a lifestyle behaviour are all ways to attune our hearts and minds to God’s liberating presence. Review your own practices in this light. Are you quick to notice blessings or burdens? Are you more likely to praise or complain? • Bibliography: Bialik & Ravnitzky, eds., The Book of Legends (New York, 1992); Leibowitz, New Studies in Shemot (Jerusalem, 1996). Scripture: JPS. © Teresa Pirola, 2013. lightoftorah.net. Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgement of the Light of Torah website. Light of Torah is a grassroots ministry based in the Catholic community in Australia, encouraging Christians to reflect on Torah with the help of Jewish insights. More... The reflection above refers to Parashat B'shalach (Exodus 13:17 - 17:16), the Torah portion read for this Sabbath in the Jewish liturgical cycle. Shabbat shalom! Download your free Jewish and Christian Liturgical Calendar, courtesy of Etz Hayim-Tree of Life Publishing.

The Christian festival of the Epiphany, in the West, primarily celebrates Christ’s ‘manifestation’ to the Gentiles as depicted in the biblical story of the Magi. [1] In Matthew’s Gospel (2:1-12) the Magi embark upon a journey seeking the ‘infant king of the Jews’. They are foreigners 'from the east' (2:1) amidst a story awash with Jewish characters, symbols, texts. For example, the Magi are led to Jerusalem, the cultic centre of Jewish life. Navigating a dangerous encounter with King Herod, their enquiry takes them to Bethlehem (about 8km south of Jerusalem). These directions come via the Jewish priests and scribes who know that, according to a prophetic tradition of Israel,[2] the messianic child is to be born ‘in Bethlehem in Judea’. Bethlehem is the birthplace of King David (1 Samuel 16:4). And Judea was the focus of a number of messianic prophecies circulating in the ancient world. At Bethlehem the Magi find a little family of Jews: ‘the child with his mother Mary’. Interpreted through the lens of the Hebrew Scriptures, reference to ‘gifts of gold and frankincense and myrrh’ perhaps alludes to Isaiah 60:6 which speaks of God exalting over a renewed Jerusalem and the (gentile) nations being drawn to its light. The guiding star can be interpreted as a symbol of the emergence of the dynasty of King David.[3] In the Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 528) we read: The magi's coming to Jerusalem in order to pay homage to the king of the Jews shows that they seek in Israel, in the messianic light of the star of David, the one who will be king of the nations. Their coming means that pagans can discover Jesus and worship him as Son of God and Saviour of the world only by turning towards the Jews and receiving from them the messianic promise as contained in the Old Testament. [4] This text is notable for the way it places the story of Israel front and centre. Attuned to the Second Vatican Council's renewal of Catholic teaching on the Church's relationship to Judaism, it presents the story of the Magi in a manner that implies an ongoing challenge for gentile Christians: to be awake to what God has done, and is doing, through the Jewish people. Cardinal Jean Marie Lustiger [5] once wrote: Pagans, even when they become Christians, are constantly tempted to refuse the particularity of history and divine election. They are tempted to make Jesus the projection of the ideal man that each culture and civilisation creates within itself. . . . Christ himself, the figure of Christ in its reality, can assume every face of humanity, but that can happen only because he is first of all the individual who was born in Bethlehem of Judea. [6] The scriptural reading of the story of the Magi proclaims Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world; and it also reminds us that this universal gift comes into the world by way of a particular people—their story, history, sacred texts, land. For the Christ-child adored by the Magi is a Jewish child, born 'in Bethlehem in Judea' (Mt 2:5); and ‘the special position of Israel’[7] in salvation history continues to hold and shine forth for all times. [8] In a Christmas reflection affirming the pivotal role of Judaism and its continuing light to the world, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI) wrote: Abraham, father of the people of Israel, father of faith, thus becomes the source of blessing, for in him ‘all the families of the earth shall call themselves blessed’ (Genesis 12:3). The task of the Chosen People is, therefore, to make a gift of their God — the one true God — to every other people; in reality, as Christians we are the inheritors of their faith in the one God. Our gratitude, therefore, must be extended to our Jewish brothers and sisters who, despite the hardships of their own history, have held on to faith in this God right up to the present, and who witness to it . . .[9] In our struggle to fully grasp of the mystery of the Incarnation, we gentile Christians are, in a sense, still journeying to that place where Christ was born. We are still enquiring, still exploring, still ‘searching into’ the Church’s mystery as we grow in understanding of our irrevocable ties to Judaism and our indebtedness to the Jewish people. For, as the Second Vatican Council declared, ‘theirs is the sonship and the glory and the covenants and the law and the worship and the promises; theirs are the fathers and from them is the Christ according to the flesh’ (Rom. 9:4-5), the Son of the Virgin Mary.[10] Notes: [1] In the East, where this ancient feast originated, the focus is primarily the theophany at the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan. The miracle at the wedding feast of Cana is also associated with Epiphany. [2] The name ‘Israel’ has multiple meanings. In this article it is a theological reference to the Jewish people, from their origins in history to their ultimate destiny in accord with God’s design. [3] With reference to Numbers 24:17: ‘a star shall come out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel’ - a messianic text in Jewish thought. [4] Emphasis added. On the significance of this text for Christian identity and interfaith relations, see Achim Buckenmaier, ‘Not Just Any Child, But That Special Child’, Jewish-Christian Relations: Insights and Issues in the Ongoing Jewish-Christian Dialogue, 30 April 2016, accessed at the website of the International Council of Christians and Jews, https://www.jcrelations.net/articles/article/not-just-any-child-but-that-special-child.html [5] French Cardinal, 1926-2007, Jewish by birth. [6] J.M. Lustiger, Choosing God – Chosen by God (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991), 64. Quoted in Achim Buckenmaier, ‘Not Just Any Child’. [7] See Joseph Ratzinger, Israel, the Church, and the World, in Catholic International 5 (1994), 309-314, quoted in Achim Buckenmaier, ‘Not Just Any Child’. [8] This statement (and this article) is framed by Christian credal convictions. Some elements (e.g., the historical fact of Jesus’ Jewish identity) find common ground with Judaism. Belief in the messianic identity and divinity of Jesus is a clear point of departure between the two religions. [9] Joseph Ratzinger, ‘The Heritage of Abraham: the Gift of Christmas’, L'Osservatore Romano (c. December 2000), accessed at the Dialogika online library maintained by the Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations and the Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University, Philadelphia. [10] Vatican II, Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions, Nostra Aetate, 28 October 1965, 4. © Teresa Pirola, 2021. lightoftorah.net Reproduction for non-commercial use permitted with acknowledgment of website. Download the PDF version.